Core and Thread

Core and Thread

A "core" represents an actual physical subset of a processor that can by itself handle processing, whereas a "thread" is how many actual processes the processor can handle at once. Intel has developed a technology they label "hyper-threading" this technique allows for one physical core (which would normally only be able to handle one thread at a time) to now be able to handle two threads simultaneously.

A thread is a task that the processor must handle, for a simple explanation, you can assume that every application you open (such as paint, notepad, media player) has its own thread... now this does not mean you can only open 2 applications at once, simply because the processor and OS work so fast at 'switching threads' to handle the needs of every application that you have open. You will just experience better performance with more cores because now you can dish out all of the work to more core processors.

For example, a computer has an i7 in it. The i7 has 4 physical cores, but each core can do 'hyper-threading' which allows this processor to handle 8 threads at once. So if you open up the task manager, you will see 8 boxes for processor performance scale.

A general rule of thumb is that more physical cores are better than more threads. So if you were comparing a processors that had 4 cores and 4 threads, would be better than 2 cores 4 threads. But the more threads your processor can handle, the better it will perform while multitasking and for some very intensive applications (video editing, CAD, CAM, Compression, Encryption, etc) will in itself utilize more than one core at a time.

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Intel Core i7 processor families

Intel Core i7 processor families

The latest generation of high-performance Intel x86-compatible microprocessors, branded Core i7, was released on November 17, 2008. Intel Core i7 microprocessors are based on new Nehalem microarchitecture, which, like AMD K8 microarchitecture, replaces Front-Side Bus interface with on-die memory controller with its own dedicated memory bus, and a separate QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) controller that uses point-to-point protocol to communicate with I/O devices and other processors in multi-processor systems. Server-class Core i7 CPUs have two point-to-point links. Other major features of the Nehalem microarchitecture include:

• Simultaneous Multi-Threading feature adds Hyper-Threading technology to each microprocessor core, which allows any Core I7 quad-core CPU to execute 8 threads at the same time.
• Each core now includes very low latency non-shared 256 KB level 2 cache. All cores share large level 3 cache.
• Turbo Boost technology temporary improves CPU performance by increasing core frequency of active cores.
• Quad-core design on a single die. Previous generation of Intel quad-core processors, Core 2 Quad essentially packed two dual-core processors into one package.
• Future Core i7 CPUs may have up to 8 cores.

There are many other performance improvements in Core i7 processors, such as enhanced branch prediction, secondary 512-entry TLB buffer, new SSE4.2 instructions, and others.

Intel Core i7 microprocessors are packaged in 1366-land Land-Grid Array (LGA) package, and require socket 1366 motherboards. Future Core i7 processors may also be packaged into 1156-land LGA package.

Core i7

Picture of: Intel Core i7-920 - AT80601000741AA / BX80601920 / BXC80601920

Core I7 family of quad-core microprocessors incorporates all basic features of the Nehalem microarchitecture - integrated memory controller, Quick Path Interconnect running at 2400 MHz, HyperThreading, Intel 64 technology, 256 KB level 2 cache per core, 8 MB level 3 cache shared between all cores and SSE 4 support. Performance-wise these processors are faster than Core 2 Quad CPUs at the same frequency, and in some applications the difference in performance can be as big as 50%. The Core i7 processors are packaged in new 1366-land LGA package and are not compatible with older Core 2 Duo/Quad motherboards.

Core i7 Extreme Edition

Core i7 Extreme Edition family includes top-performance microprocessors based on Nehalem microarchitecture. Aimed at computer enthusiasts, these processors are always clocked higher than Core I7 CPUs released at about the same time, have higher bandwidth due to faster Quick Path Interconnect links, and always come at premium prices. The Extreme Edition processors also have unlocked clock multiplier. The processors are packaged in the same 1366-land LGA package as the Core i7 CPUs, and require socket 1366 motherboards.

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Intel Core i5 processor families

Intel Core i5 processor families

Intel Core i5 microprocessor family, released in September 2009, is a family of processors with medium-level performance as compared to Core i7. The i5 processors include many features found in Core i7 Nehalem CPUs - single-die quad-core design, on-die DDR3 memory controller, point-to-point protocol used to communicate with I/O devices, 256 KB level 2 cache (per core), large shared level 3 cache, SSE4 instructions, and support for such features as Virtualization technology and Turbo Boost technology. Some features, though, were crippled or completely removed in the Core i5 CPUs:

• The microprocessors include dual-channel memory controller as opposed to triple-channel controller in Nehalem CPUs.
• Instead of Quick Path Interface, the i5 processors feature slower Direct Media Interface point-to-point protocol.
• i5-7xx processors do not support Hyper-Threading technology.
• Future i5-6xx microprocessors do include Hyper-Threading feature, but they have only two CPU cores.

Desktop Intel Core i5 microprocessors are packaged in 1156-land Land-Grid Array (LGA) package, and require socket 1156 motherboards.

Core i5 Mobile

Core i5 Mobile family of dual-core microprocessors is based on 0.032 micron Arrandale core, and is built on Westmere (enhanced Nehalem) micro-architecture. The family consists of two lines of microprocessors - i5-4xx and i5-5xx. Both lines incorporate the same basic features, including 3 MB shared level 3 cache, SSE4 instructions, and HyperThreading, Virtualization (VT-x) and Turbo Boost technologies. More expensive i5-5xx line also incorporates VT-d Virtualization, advanced security features (AES new instructions and TXT technology), and is generally clocked higher than Core i5-4xx processors released at the same time frame. Price-wise and performance-wise all Core i5 Mobile processors are positioned between cheaper Core i3 mobile family, and more expensive and powerful Core i7 mobile processors. The i5 mobile family has poorer performance than mobile i7 family due to lower core frequencies, smaller size of level 3 cache, and smaller number of cores, although the i5 processors do include every single technology that is also present in Core i7 mobile CPUs. Mobile Core i5s are packaged either in 988-pin micro-PGA package, or 1288-ball micro-BGA package.

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Intel Core i3 processor families

Intel Core i3 processor families

Core i3 line of entry-level Core-branded microprocessors was introduced on January 7, 2010 at Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. Performance-wise and price-wise these are middle-class CPUs, positioned between more expensive and more powerful Core i5 and Core i7 microprocessors, and budget Pentium and Celeron processor families. Originally based on Westmere (enhanced Nehalem) micro-architecture, Core i3 CPUs were eventually transitioned to Sandy Bridge, and later to Ivy Bridge architecture. Common features of all Core i3 generations are dual-channel DDR3 memory controller, HD-capable graphics controller, and separate DMI interface to peripheral devices. All processors have per-core 256 KB level 2 cache, large level 3 cache shared between two cores, as well as support for basic and some advanced microarchitecture features, such as SSE4 instructions, and Virtualization and HyperThreading technologies. Sandy Bridge and Ivy Bridge CPUs also added support for Advanced Vector Extensions. As common with entry-level and budget families, Core i3 line doesn't include advanced technologies, or have some of its features crippled:

• Currently (March 2013), the processors include only two CPU cores, as opposed to 4 cores in more expensive Core i5 and Core i7 families.
• Core i3 CPUs have Turbo Boost Technology disabled.
• Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) instructions are not supported;
• Processors do not support Virtualization for directed I/O (VT-d) and Trusted Execution Technology features.

Intel Core i3 lineup currently consists of desktop and mobile Core i3 families. Desktop Core i3 microprocessors are packaged in 1155- and 1156-land Land-Grid Array (LGA) packages, and require socket 1155 or socket 1156 motherboards. Mobile Core i3 CPUs are manufactured in 1023-ball BGA, 1288-ball BGA or 988 micro-PGA packages. BGA processors are soldered directly on motherboards, and PGA processors utilize socket G1 or G2.

Core i3

Picture of: Intel Core i3-530 - CM80616003180AG / BX80616I3530 / BXC80616I3530

Desktop Core i3 family spans three generations of processors, Westemere-based Core i3-5xx series, Sandy Bridge-based i3-2xxx, and finally i3-3xxx, built on Ivy Bridge architecture. Different generations have somewhat different feature sets. Most notably, Westmere chips have 4 MB L3 cache and fit into socket 1156. The second Core i3 generation doubles DMI interface bandwidth, adds AVX instructions, and has better graphics. Additionally, the processors have lower TDP and fit into socket 1155. The size of L3 cache of these chips was reduced to 3 MB. The third i3 generation has all of the features of its predecessor, and it further improves on-chip graphics and TDP. Regardless of their underlying microarchitecture, all Core i3 CPUs have 2 cores, and support Hyper-Threading technology, which allows them to run 4 threads at once. The i3 desktop microprocessors have very decent performance, which is close to or exceeds performance of the fastest Core 2 Duo parts. Core i3s are not as fast as Core i5 and i7 CPUs, but they are priced much cheaper, and, consequently, have better price / performance ratio.

Core i3 Mobile

Picture of: Intel Core i3-350M Mobile processor - CP80617004161AC

Mobile Core i3s run at considerably lower clock speeds than desktop CPUs, but they have much lower power dissipation - 35 Watt for mainstream parts, or 17 Watt for Ultra Low Voltage parts. Similar to the Core i3 desktop family, mobile i3 microprocessors span 3 successive microarchitecture generations, with each new generation adding more and more features. Core i3-3xx "Westmere" processors from the first generation had 3 MB L3 cache, SIMD support up to SSE4, and they either required socket G1 or were soldered on the motherboard. Core i3-2xxx "Sandy Bridge" CPUs introduced AVX instructions, had better integrated graphics and faster DMI interface. These microprocessors were either soldered on the board, or needed socket G2, which was not compatible with socket G1. Core i3-3xxx "Ivy Bridge" parts feature improved CPU and graphics performance. These processors come with the same features and use the same socket as the second Core i3 generation, however the Ivy Bridge chips cannot be used to upgrade older 6-series motherboards. In the second half 2013, Intel will introduce Haswell-based Core i3 processors, that will have even better performance, although they won't be compatible with socket G1 and socket G2 laptops.

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Intel Core 2 Duo / Quad / Extreme processor families

Intel Core 2 Duo / Quad / Extreme processor families

The latest generation of Intel x86-compatible processor, Core 2 Duo microprocessor family, was introduced on July 27, 2006. The Core 2 Duo processors include two cores, each core having 32 KB L1 data and 32 KB L1 code caches, and both cores having shared 2 or 4 MB L2 cache. The Core 2 Duo CPUs run at lower frequency than Pentium 4 processors, but they offer excellent performance due to more efficient architecture:

• Each processor's core can execute up to 4 instructions per cycle.
• Shared L2 cache allows the same copy of data to be used by both cores. Another advantage of shared L2 cache is that more heavily loaded core can use bigger portion of L2 cache - up to the full size of the cache.
• 128-bit SSE instructions can be executed at sustained rate of one 128-bit instruction per cycle.

Core 2 Duo architecture includes other performance enhancing features. One of these features is a "macrofusion". This feature allows the processor to load and execute common instruction pairs as one instruction.

Overall, despite of lower processor frequency, the performance of Core 2 Duo family is much higher than the performance of Pentium 4. Lower processor speed of Core 2 Duo and Extreme processors also translates into lower power consumption. Core 2 Duo E6600 and E6700 processors have thermal design power 65 Watt (75 Watt for Core 2 Extreme x6800), while less efficient Pentium 4 Extreme Edition 3.73 GHz has thermal design power of 115 Watt.

Core 2 Duo

Picture of: Intel Core 2 Duo E6400 HH80557PH0462M (BX80557E6400)

Core 2 Duo was the first family of desktop-class microprocessors based on Core microarchitecture. While the first Core 2 Duo processors had much lower core frequency and approximately the same FSB frequency and level 2 cache size as Pentium D microprocessors, they had better performance than the fastest Pentium D 960 due to much more efficient microarchitecture. The only exception to this were the slowest (less than 2 GHz) Core 2 Duo CPUs, that could perform slightly worse in some benchmarks. Newer dual-core CPUs have such improvements as higher core and FSB frequency, larger level 2 cache size, and lower power consumption. All Core 2 Duo processors use the same socket 775 package as many Pentium 4 and all Pentium D microprocessors, and can work in a number of Pentium 4 and Pentium D motherboards.

Core 2 Quad

Picture of: Intel Core 2 Quad Q6600 HH80562PH0568M (BX80562Q6600)

Core 2 Quad microprocessors are essentially two Core 2 Duo CPUs in one package - two cores are located on one die, two other cores are on another die, and both dies are packaged together. This explains why the level 2 cache on these processors is shared only between two cores. Obviously, these CPUs have higher (about 50% higher) Thermal Design Power than dual-core microprocessors running at the same frequency. The quad-core CPUs have the same performance as the Core 2 Duo processors in single-threaded applications, and are faster or considerably faster in multi-threaded applications. Performance difference in games between quad- and dual-core microprocessors is highly dependent on the game, and varies from no difference at all to 20% performance advantage for quad-core CPUs. The quad-core processors are packaged in socket 775 package, and work in the same motherboards as the Core 2 Duo CPUs.

Core 2 Extreme

Core 2 Extreme is a brand name for the best-performing desktop Core 2 microprocessors. These processors were always faster than other Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad CPUs released at the same time. No only Extreme processors had higher core frequency, they also had unlocked clocked multiplier which allowed their owners to increase their frequency above nominal (overclock them). A few Extreme processors had other features that increased their performance even further: higher bus frequency, twice as many cores, and/or large level 2 cache. Being faster than any other Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad on the market, these CPUs were almost twice more expansive than the most expensive Core 2 Duo / Quad microprocessor. The Core 2 Extreme processors were packaged in 775-land package and worked in the same motherboards as Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad CPUs.

Core 2 Solo

Core 2 Solo is a family of low-power microprocessors based on Core microarchitecture. As the name suggests, these processors have only one core. Like other mobile Core 2 families, the Core 2 Solo CPUs have additional low-power modes along with Dynamic Acceleration technology (it can temporarily boosts core frequency above nominal frequency). Solo processors have much lower Thermal Design Power than Core 2 Duo mobile microprocessors - 5.5 Watt versus 25 or 35 Watt. All Core 2 Solo CPUs are packaged into Ball Grid Array package - they are always soldered on the motherboard, and can be removed or replaced only with the help of special equipment.

Core 2 Duo Mobile

Picture of: Intel Core 2 Duo Mobile T7200 LE80537GF0414M

2 GHz
4MB L2 cache
667 MHz FSB
479-ball micro-FCBGA

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Computer Units of Storage

According to the IBM Dictionary of computing, when used to describe disk storage capacity, a megabyte is 1,000,000 bytes in decimal notation. But when the term megabyte is used for real and virtual storage, and channel volume, 2 to the 20th power or 1,048,576 bytes is the appropriate notation. According to the Microsoft Press Computer Dictionary, a megabyte means either 1,000,000 bytes or 1,048,576 bytes. According to Eric S. Raymond in The New Hacker's Dictionary, a megabyte is always 1,048,576 bytes on the argument that bytes should naturally be computed in powers of two. So which definition do most people conform to?

When referring to a megabyte for disk storage, the hard drive manufacturers use the standard that a megabyte is 1,000,000 bytes. This means that when you buy an 80 Gigabyte Hard drive you will get a total of 80,000,000,000 bytes of available storage. This is where it gets confusing because Windows uses the 1,048,576 byte rule so when you look at the Windows drive properties an 80 Gigabyte drive will report a capacity of 74.56 Gigabytes and a 250 Gigabyte drive will only yield 232 Gigabytes of available storage space and a a 750GB drive only shows 698GB. Anybody confused yet? With three accepted definitions, there will always be some confusion so I will try to simplify the definitions a little.

The 1000 can be replaced with 1024 and still be correct using the other acceptable standards. Both of these standards are correct depending on what type of storage you are referring.

Processor or Virtual Storage
· 1 Bit = Binary Digit · 8 Bits = 1 Byte · 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte · 1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte · 1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte · 1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte · 1024 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte · 1024 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte · 1024 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte · 1024 Zettabytes = 1 Yottabyte · 1024 Yottabytes = 1 Brontobyte · 1024 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte

This is based on the IBM Dictionary of computing method to describe disk storage - the simplest.

Now let's go into a little more detail.

Bit: A Bit is the smallest unit of data that a computer uses. It can be used to represent two states of information, such as Yes or No.

Byte: A Byte is equal to 8 Bits. A Byte can represent 256 states of information, for example, numbers or a combination of numbers and letters. 1 Byte could be equal to one character. 10 Bytes could be equal to a word. 100 Bytes would equal an average sentence.

Kilobyte: A Kilobyte is approximately 1,024 Bytes.

Megabyte: A Megabyte is approximately 1,024 Kilobytes. In the early days of computing, a Megabyte was considered to be a large amount of data. These days with a 500 Gigabyte hard drive on a computer being common, a Megabyte doesn't seem like much anymore.  100 Megabytes might hold a couple volumes of Encyclopedias. 600 Megabytes is about the amount of data that will fit on a CD-ROM disk.

Gigabyte: A Gigabyte is approximately 1,024 Megabytes. A Gigabyte is still a very common term used these days when referring to disk space or drive storage. 1 Gigabyte of data is almost twice the amount of data that a CD-ROM can hold.1 Gigabyte could hold the contents of about 10 yards of books on a shelf. 100 Gigabytes could hold the entire library floor of academic journals.

Terabyte: A Terabyte is approximately one trillion bytes, or 1,024 Gigabytes. To put it in some perspective, a Terabyte could hold about 3.6 million 300 Kilobyte images or maybe about 300 hours of good quality video. A Terabyte could hold 1,000 copies of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Ten Terabytes could hold the printed collection of the Library of Congress. That's a lot of data.

Petabyte: A Petabyte is approximately 1,000 Terabytes or one million Gigabytes. It's hard to visualize what a Petabyte could hold. 1 Petabyte could hold approximately 20 million 4-door filing cabinets full of text. It could hold 500 billion pages of standard printed text. It would take about 500 million floppy disks to store the same amount of data.

Exabyte: An Exabyte is approximately 1,000 Petabytes. Another way to look at it is that an Exabyte is approximately one quintillion bytes or one billion Gigabytes. There is not much to compare an Exabyte to. It has been said that 5 Exabytes would be equal to all of the words ever spoken by mankind.

Zettabyte: A Zettabyte is approximately 1,024 Exabytes. There is nothing to compare a Zettabyte to but to say that it would take a whole lot of ones and zeroes to fill it up.

Yottabyte: A Yottabyte is approximately 1,024 Zettabytes. It would take approximately 11 trillion years to download a Yottabyte file from the Internet using high-power broadband. You can compare it to the World Wide Web as the entire Internet almost takes up about a Yottabyte.

Brontobyte: A Brontobyte is (you guessed it) approximately 1,024 Yottabytes. The only thing there is to say about a Brontobyte is that it is a 1 followed by 27 zeroes!

Geopbyte: A Geopbyte is about 1024 Brontobytes! Not sure why this term was created.One way of looking at a geopbyte is 1₅267 650₄600 228₃229 401₂496 703₁205 376

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